True ease in writing comes from art, not chance,
As those move easiest who have learn'd to dance.--Alexander Pope
All term papers, whether family history, historiography, or general history, share certain basic elements, including being attractive and clean. The guidelines set forth below will help you achieve the goals all students should have for any paper--clarity, purpose, conciseness. These suggestions are merely that, and they apply to my class. Different instructors have different outlooks on writing and analyzing, and you should always make sure you understand your instructor's requirements.
Part 1 of the guideline deals with the elements that go into every paper. Part 2 deals with technical requirements for a paper in my courses. If an instructor requires an extended writing assignment for a course and does not hand out technical guidelines, consult with that instructor so that you are clear on what is acceptable and what is not. Part 3 is a listing of handbooks, manuals, and guides to writing a college paper.
1. Parts of a Paper
The paper you turn in for a grade is made up of three basic parts-- introduction,
development, and conclusion. This may sound simplistic, but, surprisingly, many students
omit one or more of these parts. Common problems with papers include multiple
introductions, false conclusions (the "oh, by the way" syndrome), and,
occasionally, a paper that is introduction and conclusion and no development.
There are other parts to the paper, however, building blocks that serve as the foundation for what you present to an instructor. In order to properly present the three parts a professor sees, a writer needs to prepare an outline that will serve to organize the contents. And, in order to prepare a proper outline, a writer must choose a topic and research it carefully.
1.1. The topic is not only what you are going to write about, but how you are going to write about it. In other words, in selecting the topic you must also make decisions about the type of paper you will write--historiographical, narrative, comparative, quantitative. Sometimes some or all of these questions are answered for you in the instructions given by the professor. A family history paper dealing with the last four generations of your ancestry is not going to be historiographical, while an extended book review in which you must compare four monographs demands a historiographic approach. In selecting a topic, make sure to read the syllabus instructions carefully and consult with the instructor about approaches and expectations.
1.2. Research goals properly thought out in advance will make the work of collecting and analyzing sources easier and more efficient. There is not enough space here to explain good research techniques. Some of the sources listed at the end of this guide do a good job of explaining the process. The following basic tips, however, should be kept in mind at all times.
1.2.1. Keep notes on everything, particularly location of all sources consulted. There is nothing worse than dismissing a source early in the research then having to frantically search for it later, when it turns out that it was exactly on the mark. Start building your bibliography right away and include everything you consulted, whether it made your final paper or not.
1.2.2. Stick to your topic as carefully as you can. Limited time and resources require that you do not waste time being side-tracked or following dead ends. If your research begins to turn up false leads or inadequate sources, make a decision or consult with your instructor on whether or not to continue pursuing the subject.
1.2.3. Start early and work steadily so that you do not wind up trying to research, organize, and write the weekend before the paper is due. This is probably the most difficult advice for students to take. Other assignments, work, parties, the wash, shopping, darning socks, all become excuses not to get started on the paper. You will find, however, that devoting a little time to the paper every day or two from the beginning of the semester will get you to your deadline in much better shape.
1.2.4. Find an angle you like, if at all possible. Unless the instructor specifically chooses what you will write about, for instance a family history paper, try to be your own person and think about how you can make the paper your own. Even in a family history paper you have choices, especially in regard to how many generations, which side of your family you like better, what activities or events you want to focus on, and in what context you want to place your family. The same goes for other types of papers--history is broad enough to accommodate your preferences.
1.3. The outline of the paper is the "blueprint" or "map" from which the structure of the essay takes its shape. It is in the outline that such basic questions as chronology and topic are answered. Is this subject better covered by dividing it up into a number of themes or will a simple chronological narrative work better? For example, you want to write a term paper on Franklin D. Roosevelt. If you chose to write a brief biography you would probably work in a chronological format, starting with his family background, covering his childhood, his introduction into politics, early career, impact of polio, his campaign for the presidency, highlights of each administration, and death. If you chose to write about his New Deal program, however, you might want to divide it up by program, e.g. work relief, youth programs, banking. Within each sub-theme there would be a chronological structure, but the main organization of the paper would be based on policy areas. In the outline, then, you divide up what you are going to talk about into understandable and manageable parts.
1.4. The introduction of a paper should explain your goals to the reader. Do not assume that the reader knows anything about the subject. Although your instructor is the target audience for your research paper, you should write as if you are addressing a general audience to which what you have to say is brand new.
In order to properly explain what you are going to do in a paper, you have to have done it and clearly understand it yourself. In other words, the introduction should be written at the end. By waiting to write the introduction last you have the advantage of knowing exactly what you said and what conclusions you drew from your work.
The introduction is not the conclusion, however. It should not summarize the contents of the paper. Rather, the introduction should merely state what will be covered and why. Look at the introductory paragraph for this guide. Notice that it explains the purpose of the guide and what elements are contained in it.
1.5. The development of the paper is the body of what you have to say; where you present your evidence and make your arguments. It is, obviously, the longest part of the paper. Good organization is critical in order not to bore, confuse or frustrate the reader. Avoid repetition, overkill (e.g., using four sources when two would have been enough), jargon, colloquial language, slang.
Express yourself fully: if you like or dislike something, or agree or disagree with a position, make sure to explain why you hold that opinion.
It is in the body of the paper that you will be citing sources. This is a critical part of historical writing. Ideas that are not your own should be credited to the writers from whom you got them. This can be done at the end of the appropriate paragraph with a footnote stating the sources you consulted for that part of your discussion. Words that are not your own should be cited even more rigorously. Direct quotes should be credited as they are presented. When you close the quotation marks or end a block quote, make sure to add a footnote stating exactly where those words came from, whether from a written source or an oral history interview or a television documentary. It is acceptable to make use of other people's words and ideas so long as you properly credit them. Anything else is plagiarism and may also be copyright infringement. (For more information on copyright, visit the Copyright Website.)
Footnotes or endnotes should include the following information:
Books: Author, Title (Place of Publication: Name of Press, year), page #(s).
E.g.:
Jesús F. de la Teja, San Antonio de Béxar: A Community on New Spain's Northern Frontier (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995), 120.
Articles: Author, "Article Title," Name of Journal vol. and # (year):page #(s). E.g.:
Jesús F. de la Teja, "Discovering the Tejano Community in 'Early' Texas," Journal of the Early Republic 18, 1 (1998): 73-74.
Web sites: Author, "Page Title," URL, date. E.g.:
Jesús F. de la Teja, "Writing Assignments," <http://www.history.swt.edu/Full-Time-Faculty/DelaTeja/writing-tips.htm>, n.d. [or no date].
E-mail message: Author, e-mail address, "Subject," private e-mail message to [recipient's name], date. E.g.:
David Weber, <dweber@post.cis.smu.edu>, "Re: Borderlands Project," private e-mail message to Jesús F. de la Teja, October 29, 1999.
Unpublished sources, interviews: [Name of interviewee], interview by [name of interviewer], date, source. E.g.:
James A. Michener, interview by Jesús F. de la Teja, September 1, 1982, Jesús F. de la Teja family papers, [private collection].
Unpublished sources, personal communication: [Author] to [recipient], type of communication [e.g. conversation, letter], date, source. E.g.:
James A. Michener to Jesús F. de la Teja, letter, September 1, 1982.
A bibliography should include the same information, but note that all items are placed in alphabetical order, and that no page numbers are given for books, while articles should include complete page numbers. E.g.:
De la Teja, Jesús F. "Discovering the Tejano Community in 'Early' Texas," Journal of the Early Republic 18, 1 (1998): 73-98.
De la Teja, Jesús F. San Antonio de Béxar: A Community on New Spain's Northern Frontier. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995.
De la Teja, Jesús F. "Writing Assignments," <http://www.history.swt.edu/Full-Time-Faculty/DelaTeja/writing-tips.htm>, n.d. [or no date].
Weber, David. <dweber@post.cis.smu.edu>, "Re: Borderlands Project," private e-mail message to Jesús F. de la Teja, October 29, 1999.
Teja, Jesús F. de la, family papers [private collection].
These examples cover only a portion of the possible sources you may have to cite,
including newspapers, interviews, document collections, photographs, and other
non-published, non-print sources. For more information on these, consult one of the guides
mentioned below in section
3. Handbooks, Manuals, and Guidebooks.
1.6. Finally, the conclusion, is that part of the essay where you get to summarize the most important points you raised in your paper and add any final thoughts you may have on your subject. Do not repeat everything you said in the paper. Stick to the central points and stress what you learned and what others can learn from your work.
It is also acceptable, indeed I encourage you to discuss what remains to be done with regard to your subject. If you learned that your family has a rich history going back to Germany and that you have the names of the towns where they came from and the dates of their immigration, you might want to stress that the next phase in writing the family history is to research in Germany. Having read four books on the Franciscan missions in Texas and found that none discusses the educational backgrounds of the missionaries, you might wish to point that out as a gap in the historiography.
Remember: Instructors like to know that you got something out of your work other
than a grade. Do not be afraid to think and express your opinions.
2. Technical Requirements
The following requirements are to be followed for all written assignments in my courses
other than book reviews. Always check with your instructor about specific technical
details to be followed in his or her courses. The guidelines below do not include matters
of GRAMMAR
AND SPELLING, for which you should consult that guide. Failure to follow the
instructions listed below will result in a lower grade no matter how good the content.
2.1. The title page should state the title of the paper, the number of the course for which the paper is written, the semester, and your name.
2.2. If you decide to use endnotes instead of footnotes, begin the notes on a separate page following the last page of text. Begin your bibliography, which unlike your notes contains all sources consulted, whether used or not, on a separate page. The bibliography should be the last element of your paper.
2.3. Each page should be typed double-space and have one-inch margins on all four sides. Despite what many people think, every wordprocessor out there has the capability of printing out a double-spaced, properly margined paper.
2.4. Number each page at the upper right-hand corner except the first, which should be numbered at the bottom center. Page numbering begins with the first page of text, not the title page.
2.5. Make sure to follow length requirements stated in the syllabus. The bibliography (and, if you use them, endnote pages) do not count as part of the text. Compensate the text length for the presence of footnotes. For example, if your notes are taking up the bottom quarter of each page, at the end of four pages you have used up one page of text.
2.6. Do not employ a plastic or paper cover or folder. The paper should be kept together only by a staple or paper clip attached to the upper left-hand corner.
2.7. Turn in a clean paper. It is difficult for the instructor to care about a paper
that the student submitting it does not care about. Torn, stained or dirty, hand-scribbled
work shows a lack of pride in one's work that will reflect poorly on you. It is not a
matter of style over substance, but of overall craftsmanship.
3. Handbooks, Manuals, and Guidebooks
Below are listed a few generally available tools for writing a good paper. Please note
that there are many different "styles" of writing, the MLA, the APA, the CMS,
and others. Different disciplines require their own forms of notation and construction.
The guides below are generally or specifically useful to you in writing a history paper.
If you have any questions about the mechanics of the paper that are not answered by any
sources you consult, please talk to your instructor.
Jules R. Benjamin, A Student's Guide to History, 6th ed. (New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1994).
In my opinion the best single guide for the undergraduate history student. It covers all
areas of course work: taking lecture notes; reading assignments effectively; preparing for
essay examinations; writing book reviews; researching and writing longer papers. Full of
examples and containing a good brief description of the Dewey and Library of Congress
cataloging systems.
Norman F. Cantor and Richard I. Schneider, How to Study History (Arlington
Heights, IL.: Harlan Davidson, 1967).
A more philosophical approach to many of the same areas of historical study as Benjamin
tackles. Includes a chapter on historiography and philosophy of history. Recommended for
the very serious undergraduate history major.
Stanley D. Frank, Remembering Everything You Read: The Evelyn Wood 7-Day Speed
Reading and Learning Program (New York: Avon Books, 1992).
Cheap paperback that might give you good tips on how to improve study habits as well as
how to write a paper. Chapter 8, "Supersonic Writing," makes a number of
valuable suggestions on how to organize and effectively use your time in preparing and
writing the paper.
Kate Turabian,
A
Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (any edition).
This has been the technical bible of writers of history for over a generation. Turabian,
who was instrumental in developing the Chicago Manual of Style, pays particularly
close attention to proper citation forms. The wide variety of examples of footnotes,
endnotes, and bibliographical forms should answer most questions.
Have a question? Contact me at jd10@txstate.edu
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